SCRIPTURAL VIEWS ON OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES.

OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES.

The people of Israel made offerings and sacrifices to God on a regular basis, just as Christians today take Communion in church, give offerings, and pray prayers. The Israelites performed offerings and sacrifices in order to restore their relationship with God. They did this at particular times of year, such as at the new moon and the harvest. They also did it when a vow was broken or when a person was deemed unclean due to a particular medical problem. Some sacrifices and offerings commemorated key times in the history of Israel, such as the Passover. Finally, the Israelites performed offerings and sacrifices to restore the relationship to God after sin had broken it.

The rules about offerings and sacrifices were very detailed and God expected the Israelites to follow them exactly.

PERFORMANCE AND ORDER OF SACRIFICES:

The main source for a description of sacrifices is the opening section of Leviticus (Leviticus 1:1-7). It consists of two separate parts. The first part deals with two categories of sacrifices (Leviticus 1:1-6:7). The first category includes the sacrifices with an aroma "very pleasing to the LORD," and this includes the burnt (Leviticus 1:1-17), grain (Leviticus 2:1-16), and peace offerings (Leviticus 3:1-17). The second part includes the expiatory sacrifices (those that atone or make amends for wrongdoing). This includes sin offerings (Leviticus 4:1-5:13) and guilt offerings (Leviticus 5:14-6:7). Attention is paid to the small details of each ritual, and they are grouped according to their logical associations.

The grain offering follows the burnt offering because it always accompanied it in actual practice (Numbers 15:1-21; Numbers 28:1-29). It also went with the peace offering (Leviticus 7:12-14; Numbers 15:3-4). Special emphasis is placed on burning the inward parts of a sacrifice on the altar to make an aroma "very pleasing to the LORD" (Leviticus 1:9; Leviticus 1:17; Leviticus 2:2; Leviticus 2:9; Leviticus 2:12; Leviticus 3:5; Leviticus 3:11; Leviticus 3:16). When the Lord was pleased with the sacrifice (Genesis 8:21), it was a sign of divine favor. A refusal to recognize the offering and to smell the pleasant odor showed God's displeasure (Leviticus 26:31; see also NASB). The priest evidently knew how to read the signs and would tell the person making the offering whether his sacrifice had been accepted or rejected (1 Samuel 26:19; Amos 5:21-23).

The sin and guilt offerings allowed the people to repair their broken relationships with God (Leviticus 4:1-6:7; Leviticus 4:20). The situations requiring such offerings are listed, and special emphasis is made in describing the handling of blood in the ritual.

The second major section in this passage (Leviticus 6:8-7:38) stresses the administrative details for the various offerings. This section consists of a series of "instructions" for each type of offering concerning the distribution of the sacrificed materials. Some of the materials went to the priest, some went to the person who made the offering, and others were burned on the altar or disposed of outside the camp. Those sacrifices that the priests designated as "most holy" were to be eaten only by qualified members of the priesthood (Leviticus 2:3; Leviticus 2:10; Leviticus 10:12-17; Leviticus 14:13; Numbers 18:9).

The burnt offering is discussed first because it was entirely consumed on the altar and was not eaten by anyone. After it, the sacrifices that were distributed to the priests are described (Leviticus 6:17; Leviticus 6:26; Leviticus 6:29; Leviticus 7:1; Leviticus 7:6). Finally, the peace offerings are described. A significant portion of the peace offering was returned to the people who made the offering.

The order in which the sacrifices are treated in this passage also corresponds to the frequency they were performed over the course of the religious year (Numbers 28:19; 2 Chronicles 31:3; Ezekiel 45:17). This would be particularly important for the priests and Levites on duty at the temple because they were responsible for the organization of the daily sacrifices, especially during the holidays. During feasts and festivals, managing sacrifices at the temple was a formidable task (1 Chronicles 23:28-32; 1 Chronicles 26:15; 1 Chronicles 26:20-22; 2 Chronicles 13:10-11; 2 Chronicles 30:3-19; 2 Chronicles 34:9-11).

Each section concerning a particular type of offering concludes with the administrative details needed for each type of offering. After this, there is a summary of the matters discussed previously (Leviticus 7:7-10), and the section concludes with a description of the peace offerings (Leviticus 7:11-36). Peace offerings did not play a role in the sacred calendar except during the Festival of Harvest (also called Feast of Weeks, Leviticus 23:19-20). On all other occasions, with the two exceptions of the Nazirite vow and the installation of new priests, peace offerings were purely voluntary sacrifices and they did not require any special types of "bookkeeping."

In other biblical contexts, the sacrifices are listed according to the same bookkeeping or administrative order. These include burnt offerings, grain offerings, drink offerings, and sin offerings. An example of this is the list of donations made by the tribal leaders at the dedication of the altar (Numbers 7). The information is organized like an everyday ledger from the temple storehouse. The summary of the list classifies the animals as burnt, grain, sin and peace offerings (Numbers 7:87-88), according to the respective entries from each donor (Numbers 7:15-17). The scribes had two main purposes for records like these. First, they were supposed to credit the people making the offerings. Second, these books were used to record the treasures and food supplies coming in. Most of the food being given as offerings was actually divided among the priests (Numbers 18:8-11; 2 Chronicles 31:4-19).

When prescriptions were made about the type of offerings that were supposed to be brought (Numbers 15:24), the bookkeeping order was also followed. This was true of the sacrifices based on the religious calendar. Offerings were listed for feasts like new moon (Numbers 28:11-15), each day of Passover (Numbers 28:19-22), the Festival of Harvest (Leviticus 23:18-19; Numbers 28:27-30), the Festival of Trumpets (Numbers 29:2-5), the Day of Atonement (Numbers 29:8-11), and each day of the Festival of Shelters (also called Feast of Tabernacles, Numbers 29:12-16).

For sacrifices required in specific cases, the instructions as to what offerings to bring follow this same type of sequence. Also, when a Nazirite vow was terminated, the Nazirite brought burnt, sin, and peace offerings. However, the priest performed the ritual according to a different order. The sin offering was made first, followed by the burnt offering and the peace offering (Numbers 6:16-17). In the case of an incomplete vow, the first step was to offer a sin offering and then a burnt offering to renew the vow (Numbers 6:11). The renewing of the Nazirite vow required a special guilt offering which was a distinct ritual (Numbers 6:12).

The description of the offerings made by the prince of Israel in the latter days presents the same contrast between the two different types of sacrifices. On festival holidays the prince brought burnt, grain, and drink offerings, but he offered them as sin, grain, burnt, and peace offerings (Ezekiel 45:17). This second order of sacrifices in which the sin offering came before the burnt offering was also followed during the rededication of the altar (Ezekiel 43:18-27).

The same "procedural" sequence of sacrifices appears in other instances. For instance, the purification of a leper would require that guilt offerings were made followed by sin and burnt offerings (Leviticus 14:19). The man with a discharge would offer sin and burnt offerings (Leviticus 15:15). The same order is followed for the sacrifices on the Day of Atonement (Leviticus 16:3-6; Leviticus 16:11; Leviticus 16:15; Leviticus 16:24).

The book of Leviticus furnishes two examples of the proper order in which sacrifices were made. One example is the ordination of Aaron and his sons. In this case, the sin offering came first and then the burnt offering (Exodus 29:10-18; Leviticus 8:14-21). The focal point in this ritual was the sacrifice of ordination, which was a special form of the peace offering (Exodus 29:19-34; Leviticus 8:22-29). The second example describes the formal beginning of the sacrificial system at the (Leviticus 9). In this case, the sacrifices made for Aaron were sin and burnt offerings. The offerings that were made for the people were sin, burnt, grain, and peace offerings (Leviticus 9:7-22).

The same sequence is followed at the cleansing and restoration of the temple in Jerusalem conducted by King Hezekiah (2 Chronicles 29:20-36). A great sin offering was first, followed by the burnt offerings accompanied by music and song. Then the king proclaimed that the people had committed themselves to the Lord. In this new state of purity they could share in the sacrifices of devotion and thanksgiving.

The detailed order of the sacrifices illustrates the Old Testament idea of how God could be approached. First, atonement for sin had to be made. Then, the person making the sacrifice had to be consecrated. When these conditions were met, the person making the offering could express his continued devotion with more burnt offerings and he could also take part in the fellowship sacrifices in which he himself got a large portion of the slaughtered animal to share with his friends (Deuteronomy 12:17-19).

DESCRIPTION OF SACRIFICES:

The following description of the different types of sacrifices treats them according to their order in the priestly procedure. They are symbolic of the way the people of Israel would approach God.

1. EXPIATION OFFERINGS.

There were two types of offerings that allowed people to renew a broken relationship with God-the sin offering and the guilt offering.

2. SIN OFFERINGS.

In the sin offerings that were used for expiation (Leviticus 4:1-5:13; Leviticus 6:24-30), different animals were required depending on the rank of the person making the offering. A high priest had to bring a young bull (Leviticus 4:3), as did the tabernacle congregation as a whole (Leviticus 6:14), except when the sacrifice was being used to atone for a sin committed during a ritual (Numbers 15:24). A ruler would bring a male goat (Leviticus 4:23), but a common person could provide a female goat (Leviticus 4:28; Numbers 15:27) or a lamb (Leviticus 4:32). If the commoner was poor, he could offer two turtledoves or two young pigeons (Leviticus 5:7). For commoners who were extremely poor, they could bring a portion of fine flour (Leviticus 5:11-13; Hebrews 9:22).

The person making the offering brought the animal to the entrance of the temple and laid his hand on it (Leviticus 4:4). He did not confess his sin with this act because the animal was not being sent away. Instead, he was simply identifying himself with the sacrifice. The person bringing the offering had to kill the animal on the north side of the altar (Leviticus 4:24; Leviticus 4:29). The animals were never slaughtered directly on the altar. The priest who was overseeing the ceremony collected the blood. When the sacrifice was a bull for himself or for the congregation, the priest sprinkled some of the blood before the veil inside the meeting tent and put some on the horns of the incense altar Leviticus 4:5-7; Leviticus 4:16-18). On the Day of Atonement the priest brought the sacrificial blood for himself and for the people into the Most Holy Place (Leviticus 16:14-15). From all other animals, the blood was applied to the horns of the altar of burnt offering (Leviticus 4:25; Leviticus 4:30; Leviticus 4:34). The blood of birds was sprinkled on the side of the altar (Leviticus 5:9). Finally, the remaining blood from any offering was poured or drained out at the base of the altar (Leviticus 4:7).

The choicest internal organs, like the fatty tissue over the entrails, the two kidneys, and the liver were all offered on the altar to God (Leviticus 4:8-10). The carcass and the other entrails were burned outside the camp when it was a bull for the priest or for the people. This was also true of the bull for the appointment of the priests (Exodus 29:10-14; Leviticus 8:14-17). Otherwise, the priest who conducted the ceremony received the edible part of the sacrifice for himself. He had to eat it within the temple area, and its preparation was governed by very strict rules (Leviticus 6:25-30; Leviticus 10:16-20). A sin offering of one male goat was presented at each of the sacred holidays including the New Moon (Numbers 28:15), each day of Passover (Numbers 28:22-24), the Festival of Harvest (Numbers 28:30), the Festival of Trumpets (Numbers 29:5), the Day of Atonement (Numbers 29:11), and each day of the Festival of Shelters (Numbers 29:16; Numbers 29:19). The high priest also offered a bull for himself and then sacrificed one of the two goats on the Day of Atonement. Certain purification ceremonies required lesser sin offerings like lambs or birds. This included ceremonies for childbirth (Leviticus 12:6-8), cleansing from leprosy (Leviticus 14:12-14; Leviticus 14:19-22), cleansing from abscesses and hemorrhages (Leviticus 15:14-15; Leviticus 15:29-30), or for breaking a vow (Numbers 6:10-11).

3. GUILT OFFERINGS.

The guilt offerings used for expiation (Leviticus 5:14-6:7; Leviticus 7:1-7) were a special kind of sin offering (Leviticus 5:7). They were required whenever someone had been denied his rightful due. Replacement of the amount that had been taken was required plus an additional fine (Leviticus 5:16; Leviticus 6:5). The animal was usually a ram (Leviticus 5:15; Leviticus 5:18; Leviticus 6:6). The cleansed leper and the defiled Nazirite had to bring a male lamb (Leviticus 14:12; Leviticus 14:21; Numbers 6:12). The person making the offering apparently handled the sacrifice in the same way he would handle a sin offering, but the priest had to sprinkle the blood around the altar (Leviticus 7:2). Some of the blood was applied to the tip of the cleansed leper's right ear and to his right thumb and big toe (Leviticus 14:14). Also, after this ritual, the priest received most of the animal's flesh for food (Leviticus 7:6-7; Leviticus 14:13). A guilt offering was required whenever another person had suffered some loss. Disobeying ritual rules, like eating the "the LORD's sacred property" without proper authorization (Leviticus 5:14-19; Leviticus 22:14), required that a person pay the sum that should have gone to the Lord plus a fine that went to the priest (Leviticus 5:16; 2 Kings 12:16). The leper belongs in this category, since during the time of his infection he was unable to offer his sacrifices to God (Leviticus 14:12-18). The same rules apply to the Nazirite who had been defiled while he was set apart for service for God (Numbers 6:12). Violation of another person's property rights could be mended only with a guilt offering. This included cheating on deposits, robbery or oppression, failing to report the finding of someone's lost property, or failing to testify in court (Leviticus 6:1-5). Intercourse with a slave girl who was pledged to be married was also a violation of property rights (Leviticus 19:20-22). If the offended party was no longer living and had no surviving kinsmen, the payment went directly to the priest (Numbers 5:5-10).

4. CONSECRATION OFFERINGS.

Consecration offerings are the rituals that usually come to mind when one hears the word "offering." These types of offerings represent acts of personal commitment that had to accompany a person's repentance. They were also necessary if a person wanted to rejoin the fellowship of community sacrifices.

5. BURNT OFFERINGS.

The burnt offerings that were used for consecration could be a bull, a sheep, or a bird. The person making the offering presented the animal, laid his hand on it, and killed it on the north side of the altar. The bird was simply given to the priest. The priest collected the blood, presented it before God, and then sprinkled it around the altar. When the offering was a bird, he cut off its head and drained the blood at the side of the altar. Although the slaughtering and sprinkling of the blood were similar to the expiatory sacrifices, the main emphasis here is on killing the animal, washing its unclean parts, and then carefully arranging all of the pieces on the altar. All of this was then consumed on the altar as a pleasing odor to the Lord. Since burnt offerings were offered in the morning and the evening, a good supply of wood by the altar was necessary. The priest who was overseeing everything had to keep the fire burning continuously (Numbers 6:8-13).

Burnt offerings played an important role in the sacrifices of the religious calendar. The continual burnt offering was made twice a day. A male lamb was sacrificed in the morning and the evening (Exodus 29:38-42; Numbers 28:1-8). Two additional lambs were sacrificed on each Sabbath (Numbers 28:9-10).

Except for these daily offerings, a sin offering of one goat was usually made along with the burnt offerings on certain holidays. During the new moon at the beginning of each month, two young bulls, one ram, and seven male lambs were offered (Numbers 28:11-14). The same offerings were required for each day of the Passover festival (Numbers 28:19-24) and again on the Festival of Harvest (Numbers 28:6-29). On the Festival of Trumpets and the Day of Atonement, the requirement was one bull, one ram, and seven lambs (Numbers 29:2-4).

The great Festival of Shelters (Feast of Tabernacles) was characterized by a series of elaborate burnt offerings, plus one goat per day as a sin offering. On the first day, 13 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male lambs were sacrificed (Numbers 29:12-16). Each day after this, the number of bulls was decreased by one until only seven bulls were offered on the seventh day (Numbers 29:17-25). On the eighth day the animals required for Trumpets and Atonement were offered. This included one bull, one ram, and seven lambs.

Certain purification rituals required burnt offerings in addition to sin offerings. This included rituals after childbirth (Leviticus 12:6-8), abscesses (Leviticus 15:14-15), and discharges (Leviticus 15:29-30), or after defilement while under a Nazirite vow (Numbers 6:10-11). Though it is not stated that grain offerings were required in these cases, they certainly were for the cleansing from leprosy (Leviticus 14:10; Leviticus 14:19-22; Leviticus 14:31) and the completion of the Nazirite vow (Numbers 6:14-16).

The Hebrew term referring to the grain offerings used for consecration are best translated with the word "gift" (Genesis 4:3-5; Judges 6:18; 1 Samuel 2:17). However, in the specific context, it referred to a combination of fine flour, olive oil, and frankincense that could be made up in the form of baked loaves, wafers, or morsels. The offering of firstfruits required crushed heads of new grain (Leviticus 2:14). No leaven or honey was permitted on the cakes, although leaven and honey could be accepted as a firstfruit offering. They would not go to the altar but were given to the priest. The person making the offering had to bring the prepared loaves or wafers to the temple. The priest would burn one handful on the altar as its "token portion" (Leviticus 2:2) and he would keep the remaining portion for his own food (Leviticus 6:16; Leviticus 7:9). However, when the priest was making a grain offering for himself, he burnt it all on the altar (Leviticus 6:22-23).

6. GRAIN OFFERINGS.

A grain offering was usually given with every burnt offering, especially those that were related to the religious calendar (Numbers 28-29). Different amounts were required depending on the offering (Numbers 15:2-10). Other happy occasions for a grain offering included the cleansing of a leper (Leviticus 14:10; Leviticus 14:20-21; Leviticus 14:31) and the successful completion of a Nazirite vow (Numbers 6:13-15).

Peace offerings were always followed by grain offerings (Leviticus 7:12-14; Numbers 15:4). The priest received one of each pair of cakes or wafers. The remainder was returned to the person making offeringing to be eaten with the flesh of the sacrificial animal at a place of his choice.

7. DRINK OFFERINGS.

For drink offerings that were used for consecration, the different amounts were given depending on whether the sacrifice was a bull, ram, or lamb. The wine (Exodus 29:40), which was also called "fermented drink" (Numbers 28:7), was probably an intentional substitute for the blood used by other nations (Psalm 16:4). The libation was classed as a "pleasing odor" offering (Number 15:7, NRSV). As it was with the burnt offering, the entire drink was used and nothing was given to the priest (Numbers 28:7).

Drink offerings accompanied the daily offering (Exodus 29:40-41; Numbers 28:7) and the Sabbath offering (Numbers 28:9), as well as the new moon festival. Reference is also made to them in connection with the days of the Festival of Shelters (Numbers 29:18; Numbers 29:21). The same was true for the Passover, Harvest, and the Festival of Trumpets (Numbers 28:16-29:11; Ezekiel 45:11). A drink offering was required for the rituals concerning a Nazirite vow (Numbers 6:17) but not for cleansing a leper (Leviticus 14:10-20).

8. FELLOWSHIP OFFERINGS.

Fellowship offerings were voluntary on the part of the person making the offering and they were generally not governed by regulations except for the Nazirite (Numbers 6:17) and the Festival of Harvest (Leviticus 23:19-20). A person who had already fulfilled the requirements for atonement and personal consecration was permitted to make a fellowship offering. Burnt offerings often accompanied the fellowship sacrifices as a further expression of devotion to God.

9. PEACE OFFERINGS.

Peace offerings (Leviticus 3; Leviticus 7:11-36; Amos 5:22) were the basic class of all fellowship or communal offerings. In terms of holiness these offerings were not as rigidly confined as the other offerings. Animals from the herd or flock, male or female (Leviticus 3:1; Leviticus 3:6; Leviticus 3:12), were permitted. Unleavened cakes were also required, at least for the thanksgiving (Leviticus 7:12-13) and Nazirite (Numbers 6:15-19) offerings. Each of these three types of peace offerings will be discussed below, with their special features.

The first parts of the ritual, the presentation and laying on of the hand, were the same as with other sacrifices. However, the animal was slaughtered at the door of the sanctuary courtyard and not on the north side of the altar (Leviticus 3:1-2; Leviticus 3:7-8; Leviticus 3:12-13; Leviticus 7:29-30). The priest collected the blood and tossed it against the altar as he did with the burnt offering (Leviticus 3:2; Leviticus 3:8; Leviticus 3:13). The choice parts of the sacrifices were offered up as a "pleasing odor" (Leviticus 3:3-5, 6-11, 14-16, NRSV).

The priest also received a certain portion of this offering. He was allowed to eat it in any ritually clean place and to share it with his family (Leviticus 7:14; Leviticus 7:30-36; Numbers 6:20), in contrast to his portion of other types of sacrifices, which he had to eat somewhere in the temple area (Numbers 18:10-11). He received one of the cakes and the breast as a wave offering and the right thigh as a contribution for the person making the offering. The offerings that were lifted up before the altar did not really represent a special kind of ritual ceremony.

The ritual act of the peace offering ended with a fellowship meal. Except for the parts on the altar or the parts given to the priest, the body of the animal was returned to the man who offered it. He had to prepare it as a communal meal for himself, his family, and for the Levite in his community (Deuteronomy 12:12; Deuteronomy 12:18-19). This would have to take place at the official sanctuary (Deuteronomy 12:6-7; Deuteronomy 12:11-12; Deuteronomy 12:15-19; 1 Samuel 1:3-4) and the participants had to observe strict rules of purity (Leviticus 7:19-21; Leviticus 19:5-8). It may be contrasted with the ritual slaughtering of animals for a banquet that was permitted at any local altar (Deuteronomy 12:16; Deuteronomy 12:20-22). The flesh of the thanksgiving offering had to be eaten on the same day of the sacrifice (Leviticus 7:15), while the meat used for freewill offerings could be finished off on the following day (Leviticus 7:16-18). Whatever remained had to be burned before the time limit expired.

There were only three times when a specific demand was made for a peace offering. These were the Festival of Harvest (Leviticus 23:19-20), upon the completion of the Nazirite vow (Numbers 6:17-20), and when new priests were appointed in the tabernacle (Exodus 29:19-22; Exodus 29:28). Other public ritual occasions included the inauguration of the temple (1 Kings 8:63; 2 Chronicles 7:5). Events on a national level that evoked the peace offering included the successful conclusion of a military campaign (1 Samuel 11:15), the end of a famine or pestilence (2 Samuel 24:25), the confirmation of a candidate to the throne (1 Kings 1:9, 19), or a time of religious revival (2 Chronicles 29:31-36). On the local level, they were offered at an annual family reunion (1 Samuel 20:6) or other festive occasions, such as the Festival of Harvest (Exodus 22:29-31; 1 Samuel 9:11-14; 1 Samuel 9:22-24; 1 Samuel 16:4-5).

10. WAVE OFFERINGS.

The first portion of the peace offering was lifted up before the Lord to signify that the priest was eating it as a representative of God. The term, "wave offering" (KJV, NIV), was also used for other kinds of offerings including precious metals donated for making religious artifacts (Exodus 35:22; Exodus 38:29) and the guilt offering of a cleansed leper (Leviticus 14:12).

11. FREEWILL OFFERINGS.

Freewill offerings were brought to the holy religious meetings that took place three times a year (Exodus 23:16; Exodus 34:20; Deuteronomy 16:10; Deuteronomy 16:16-17; 2 Chronicles 35:8; Ezra 3:5), and they were voluntary (Leviticus 7:16; Leviticus 22:18; Leviticus 22:21-23; Leviticus 23:28; Numbers 15:3; Numbers 29:39; Deuteronomy 12:6; Deuteronomy 12:17). Like the voluntary offering, the freewill offering could be a burnt offering rather than a peace offering (Leviticus 22:17-24; Ezekiel 46:12). If it was a peace offering, the flesh could be eaten on the second day but had to be burned before the third day (Leviticus 7:16-17). Unlike some other peace offerings, the animal sacrificed could have one limb longer than the other (Leviticus 22:23).

12. INSTALLATION OFFERINGS.

The Hebrew term translated "installation" refers to the setting of precious stones (Exodus 25:7; Exodus 35:9; Exodus 35:27; 1 Chronicles 29:2), so "installation" seems an appropriate translation. It had to do with a ritual act that consecrated someone for divine service (Exodus 28:41; Exodus 32:29) and required ritual purity and spiritual devotion (2 Chronicles 29:31). The details of the original ceremony at the installation of the first priest are described in two passages (Exodus 29:19-34; Leviticus 8:22-32).