MUSI, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
Music is a way people express themselves in sound, producing tones in a certain order to present a work of beauty or interest. Musical instruments are the stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music. Music probably began with speech-singing and only after time developed into songs, which were later accompanied by sounds from musical instruments.
Music, as we know it, is complex. It is a luxury and a form of entertainment. In the old days, however, music was a basic expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase "sing to the LORD" is common to the Old Testament (Exodus 15:21), but the Jewish nation was not the only one to use it. In fact, all religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The instruction to "sing to the Lord" was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.
The Bible tells us only a limited amount about music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the book of Psalms. The few musical instructions it contains are of uncertain meaning. Despite the limits to what the Bible can tell us about music in the old days, we can easily see that music was important to the people of the Bible.
MUSIC IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Music is mentioned early and often in the Bible, beginning with a reference to "Jubal, the first musician-the inventor of the harp and flute" (Genesis 4:21). This description of a musician so early in history shows his importance. He is ranked equally with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith.
Music-making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to come from the Hebrew word for "ram." The ram's horn (shophar) was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.
Later in biblical history-after music became a major part of temple worship-music gained special significance. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Genesis 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Isaiah 5:12), at military victories (2 Chronicles 20:27-28), and for work (Isaiah 16:10). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Judges 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like "war in the camp" (Exodus 32:17-18).
In the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy, accompanied by percussion instruments, is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Exodus 15). Jephthah's daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Judges 11:34). Women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Samuel 18:6-7).
As Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950-850 BC), the role of the professional musician became more important. While the levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of back-and-forth singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.
MUSICAL STYLE AND USE
The Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah of Judah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib of Assyria many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (see Psalm 137:3).
Since the Old Testament's purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Marching songs (2 Chronicles 20:27-28) and songs of triumph (Judges 5:1) also indicate a secular body of music.
MUSIC IN WORSHIP
The singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. "David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. ... The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the LORD, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight" (1 Chronicles 25:1, 7, RSV).
A singer was admitted to the levitical choir at the age of thirty, following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chronicles 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time, considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize and the ritual they had to master. It is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chronicles 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability.
The ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the offerings and sacrifices. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, when the people would fall to the ground.
THE USE OF PSALMS:
The collection of one hundred fifty lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The psalms contain not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events-for example, Psalm 30, "a song at the dedication of the temple," and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.
The psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation. Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Psalm 113-118, Psalm 120-136, Psalm 146-148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.
MUSICAL TERMS IN THE PSALM TITLES
Numerous musical terms are included in the headings of the psalms to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.
1. Alamoth is the Hebrew word for "maiden," and music experts interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. Another possible meaning for alamoth is "flutes," perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.
2. Gittith may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms. But a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.
3. Mahalath may come from the word halal, meaning "to pierce." Thus it may imply that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.
4. Maskil is probably derived from the verb sakal, "to have insight or comprehension." By looking at the psalms themselves, music experts conclude that the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.
5. Menazzeah is derived from the Hebrew verb nazzah, appearing in 1 Chronicles 15:21 in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. A typical modern translation is "to the choir director." It is now assumed that menazzeah indicates that the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist.
6. Mizmor is found nowhere else in the Bible but in the headings of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments, as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.
7. Neginah, from the Hebrew root naggen, "to touch the strings," instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.
8. Nehiloth is found only in the KJV introduction to Psalm 5. The origin of the word is uncertain.
9. Sheminith means literally "over the eighth." In 1 Chronicles 15:20 musicians are to play the harps according to alamoth, and in 1 Chronicles 15:21, to play the lyres according to sheminith. Here the terms alamoth and sheminith seem to be used in opposition. If alamoth implies a register of the female voice, then sheminith would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower-pitched instrument for accompaniment.
PSALM VARIETIES IN THE TITLES
Some of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.
1. Hazkir is translated "for a memorial offering" and was sung at the sacrificial rite called askara.
2. Lammed is translated "to teach." According to tradition, this was a psalm taught to young people as part of their education.
3. Selah is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. Most commonly, selah is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end.
4. Shiggaion probably comes from the Hebrew verb shagah, "to wander." Biblical scholars have assumed it denotes a song of sorrow or repentance.
5. Shir is the simplest word for "song" and was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.
6. Shir Hamaalot and Shir Lamaalot are referred to as the Psalms of Ascent. Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.
7. Shir Hanukkat Habayit is found only in the heading of Psalm 30 and is translated to tell us that the psalm was to be used for the dedication of the house of God.
8. Shir-yedidot appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.
9. Tefillah is a common term for "prayer" and the word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.
MUSIC IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
THE SYNAGOGUE:
By the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue, as there was no sacrificial rite. The music could not be exactly reproduced either, as there were no trained levitical singers. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single singer called a cantor. Psalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.
GREEK AND ROMAN CULTURES
While both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; Acts 9:20), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. By the time of Christ, Hellenism had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. While the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.
NEW TESTAMENT WRITINGS
One of the few mentions of instruments in the New Testament is the use of flutes at a wake (Matthew 9:23). As in the Old Testament, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (for example, the return of the prodigal son, Luke 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Matthew 6:2; Matthew 11:17; Luke 7:32; 1 Corinthians 13; 1 Corinthians 14:7-8). The best known of these is Paul's celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13.
From the account in Acts 16:25, we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music-making in 1 Corinthians 14:15 and 1 Corinthians 14:26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. As with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.
In two similar passages (Ephesians 5:19; Colossians 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms-"psalms," "hymns," and "spiritual songs." The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for "hymns" probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. "Spiritual songs" may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer (perhaps speaking in tongues) that was popular in mystical Judaism.
HYMNODY IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
It can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known in the church: the Magnificat (Luke 1:46-55), the Benedictus (Luke 1:68-79), the Gloria (Luke 2:14), and the Nunc Dimittis (Luke 2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the Old Testament, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other hymns in praise of Christ found in the New Testament include John 1:1-18, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Sometimes music in biblical times was sung acappella (without instruments). But the Hebrews also loved musical accompaniment. They used a wide variety of stringed, wind, and percussion instruments to make music.
STRINGED INSTRUMENTS
The Jewish people favored stringed instruments. As in many ancient civilizations, the Jews considered the strings the most masculine and noble (for example, David playing the lyre). They also considered them the most suitable for accompaniment in the temple service. The term minim is translated in Psalm 150:4 to designate the entire family of stringed instruments used in the praise of God.
1. Asor comes from a Hebrew root meaning "ten," but the actual description of the instrument remains unclear. The most common theory identifies it with the Phoenician zither, which had ten strings.
2. Kathros was a stringed instrument included in the list of those played at Nebuchadnezzar's court and was probably a kind of lyre (Daniel 3:5).
3. Kinnor is the most frequently mentioned instrument in the Bible, found in forty-two places. It is often called David's harp and is the most beloved instrument of the Jewish people. It is not certain whether it was played with a pick or with bare hands, but the comment that David "played [it] with his hand" (1 Samuel 16:23, KJV) suggests that this was not the common practice. The biblical descriptions of the sound of the kinnor include "pleasant" and "sweet" (Psalm 81:2).
4. Nebel was another stringed instrument (literally meaning "skin" or "skin bottle"), mentioned twenty-seven times in Scripture. Its shape was probably similar to a bottle, with the belly-shaped sounding box on the bottom.
5. Psantrin or pesanterin was a Greek instrument, mentioned in the description of King Nebuchadnezzar's orchestra (Daniel 3:5-15).
6. Sabcha or sabbeka was a stringed instrument played in the Babylonian court. It was a triangle with four strings, having a high and harsh tone (Daniel 3:5-15).
WIND INSTRUMENTS
The wind instruments can be divided into two groups: pipes and horns.
1. Halil is mentioned only six times in the Bible but was referred to frequently by postbiblical writers. The root word halal means "to pierce," thus the meaning "hollow tube." The early pipes were made from reedlike plants. It was connected with joyful events such as parties (Isaiah 5:12), but its tone was also associated with moaning and sorrow (Jeremiah 48:36).
2. Hatzotzrot was a sort of trumpet. Modern scholars have more information about this horn than many of its ancient Hebrew counterparts. The triumphal arch built by Titus in Rome includes depictions of the captured implements of the temple, among which are two trumpets. Moses was commanded to make two silver trumpets (Numbers 10:2); playing these instruments became the exclusive privilege of the descendants of Aaron. Trumpets and horns were used to signal the gathering of the congregation to the tent of meeting, to sound alarm, to alert the camps to move forward, and to announce when war was at hand.
3. Mashroqita, considered by modern scholars to be a Pan's pipe, is included in the list of orchestral instruments of King Nebuchadnezzar's court (Daniel 3:5).
4. Shophar is mentioned in the Bible seventy-two times, more than any other Hebrew instrument. It is the only instrument of ancient Israel that survives in its original form and is still used in Jewish liturgy. The early shophar was curved like a ram's horn and was used for giving ceremonial signals, not for playing music. It was used in such religious ceremonies as the transfer of the ark (2 Samuel 6:15) and Solomon's anointing as king (1 Kings 1:34).
5. Ugab, a flutelike instrument, is mentioned in Scripture four times (Genesis 4:21; Job 21:12; Job 30:31; Psalm 150). It is only in Psalm 150 that the ugab is connected with a sacred occasion.
PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS
Most of the accounts of percussion instruments are found in the early history of the Hebrew people. They were gradually eliminated from the temple orchestra, perhaps because of their association with idolatrous practices.
1. Mena anim was a loud metal rattle, constructed with a frame carrying loose rings. It is included in a list of instruments in 2Samuel 6:5.
2. Pamonim were the bells attached to the lower hem of the priest's garment, described in Exodus 28:33-34 and Exodus 39:25-26.
3. Shalishim, often translated as sistrum or timbrel, is a kind of rattle. It appears in 1 Samuel 18:6 as part of the reception of King Saul and David after the battle with the Philistines.
4. Toph or tof was a kind of hand drum used mainly by women, Some commentators have described it as a tambourine. The toph was used in merrymaking and was rather loud (Exodus 15:20).
5. Zelzelim or meziltayim were cymbals. Both of these words come from the Hebrew root zala, meaning "to resound" or "to tingle." They appear for the first time in the Bible when the ark was transferred to Jerusalem (1 Chronicles 13:8). Later they were played in the temple by the leaders of the Levitical singers (1 Chronicles 15:19).
This survey indicates the diversity of music-making in Bible times. People from generations past found music a natural outlet for their emotions and ideas. As we maintain the Christian tradition, music remains a major part of how we express what we feel about God and our lives.
